Article VI.3 Two Perspectives, One Campaign: Thutmose II’s Nubian War and Moses’ Ethiopian Campaign in Josephus

Abstract:
 This article investigates the hypothesis that the Nubian campaign conducted under Pharaoh Thutmose II, as recorded in the tomb inscriptions of Ineni, and the Ethiopian campaign led by Moses as described by Josephus in Antiquities 2.10, are in fact the same historical event viewed through distinct cultural lenses. By analyzing chronological, geographical, narrative, and sociopolitical parallels, this study presents a comparative framework suggesting that the Egyptian and Jewish traditions preserve divergent memories of a single military campaign into Kush during the early 18th Dynasty.

1. Introduction

Historians have long noted the parallel existence of Egyptian and Israelite traditions describing military encounters with Kush, or ancient Ethiopia. Egyptian inscriptions present these as victories over rebellious southern territories, while Jewish tradition, as preserved by Josephus, attributes a successful Ethiopian campaign to Moses during his years in the Egyptian court. Although previously treated as unrelated, this article proposes that both narratives reflect the same historical event: a military expedition into Nubia during the reign of Thutmose II, possibly led by Moses, who was then a royal prince or military figure in the Egyptian court.

2. The Egyptian Account: Ineni on Thutmose II’s Nubian War

The autobiographical inscription of Ineni, a royal official under Thutmose II, provides the only contemporary Egyptian record of this event. Key details include:

• The war occurred early in Thutmose II’s reign (1482 BC).
• The Pharaoh did not lead the army himself; he remained in Thebes.
• The army was dispatched into Nubia to quell rebellion.
• The campaign occurred during the Nile’s inundation season (II Akhet 8).
• The child of the Nubian chief was brought back alive as a captive.
• The campaign was successful; Nubia was subjugated as a vassal.
• The Egyptians celebrated the outcome.

This war was recorded in propagandistic terms, emphasizing the might of the Pharaoh and the restoration of order, but it does not name the general who led the expedition.

3. The Jewish Account: Josephus on Moses’ Ethiopian War

In Antiquities 2.10.1–2, Josephus recounts a military expedition led by Moses:

• Ethiopia (Kush) invaded Egypt, reaching as far as Memphis.
• The Pharaoh appointed Moses as general to repel the invasion.
• Moses marched overland due to flooding of the Nile.
• He defeated the Ethiopians, captured cities, and reached their capital.
• The king’s daughter, Tharbis, admired Moses and negotiated peace.
• Moses returned in triumph; the Egyptians rejoiced.

While Josephus’ account includes embellishments (e.g., romantic intrigue with Tharbis), the military and geographic core aligns with known Egyptian campaigns into Nubia.

 

4. Comparative Analysis: Nine Parallels

Element	Thutmose II (Ineni)	Moses (Josephus)
Timeframe	Early in reign	Early in Moses’ adulthood
Pharaoh’s Role	Remains in Egypt	Appoints Moses to lead
Flood Conditions	Campaign during inundation	Moses avoids flooded Nile by land
Enemy	Nubian rebels	Ethiopian invaders (Kush)
Route	At the Fifth Cataract	Past the Fifth Cataract
Victory	Overthrow of rebels	Great slaughter of Ethiopians
Royal Captives	Child of Kushite chief spared	Tharbis, king’s daughter, spared
Outcome	Nubia made a serfdom	Ethiopia subdued through Moses
Reaction	Egyptians rejoiced	Egyptians rejoiced

These parallel elements suggest a shared narrative core: a military campaign into Kush led by someone other than the Pharaoh, occurring during the Nile flood season, ending in victory, and marked by the sparing of royal captives.

5. Geographical Corroboration: Atbara and the “Round Nile”

Josephus describes the Ethiopian capital as being enclosed by the Nile, Astapus (Blue Nile), and Astaboras (Atbara River), making it like an island, “guarded on all sides.” Modern satellite imagery confirms that Atbara, Sudan, located at the confluence of these rivers, matches this description. The "Nile quite round" phrase, unusual in ancient literature, perfectly describes this region’s natural river arc and reinforces the historical accuracy of Josephus’ geographic memory.

6. Historical Implication and Cultural Divergence[

The Egyptian record omits the name of the general, likely due to the propagandistic focus on Pharaoh. Jewish tradition, on the other hand, places Moses at the center, emphasizing his leadership, morality, and divine favor. Both traditions may thus represent the same event filtered through different priorities:

• Egypt sought to preserve dynastic authority.
• Israel preserved the memory of Moses’ valor and God's providence.

This model parallels other ancient historiographical phenomena, such as the differing accounts of the Battle of Kadesh by Egyptians and Hittites.

7. Conclusion

The convergence of narrative, chronology, geography, and thematic elements strongly supports the hypothesis that the Nubian war of Thutmose II and the Ethiopian campaign of Moses are two versions of the same historical military event. While definitive proof may remain elusive, the circumstantial evidence is significant and warrants serious consideration.

This identification not only adds historical depth to the Moses tradition but also introduces the possibility that Moses played a real military role in Egypt’s expansion into Kush, preserved in distorted form through both Egyptian monuments and Jewish oral history.